Credits:- Manual for Restoration and Retrofitting of Rural Structures in Kashmir.
Rural Architecture of Kashmir.
Traditional architecture in many places continues to evolve, and Kashmiri rural architecture is no exception. A number of building systems in various parts of Kashmir have developed over time to accommodate local natural and cultural factors, including the impact of earthquakes. These systems are not only part of the cultural heritage of Kashmir but also add to its beautiful landscape. Historically, the buildings have depended completely upon stone, mud, bricks and wood for roofing as well as walling. Until very recently, non-local materials did not represent a valid option for local constructions. They were expensive, and their use added logistical complications to the construction process. However, in recent times new materials have made their way into the valleys of Kashmir on account of their favorable economics as well as people’s aspiration to modernity.
Until the 1970s the most common building systems in Kashmir were brick or stone walls. Some of them timber framed, with timber and mud roofs. But as durable wood like Deodar became very expensive, corrugated galvanized iron (CGI) sheets came to replace wood planks and shingles. In areas where it is easy to transport these sheets, the change has been so far-reaching that CGI sheeting now constitutes the most common form of roofing in the region. Even in areas where just twenty years ago houses were mainly built with flat mud roofs, CGI sheets have become the predominant roofing material. Apart from this, the reinforced concrete (RC) slab is gradually replacing the timber floor and load bearing masonry walls are replacing the timber framing. Again, changing economic forces as well as people’s aspirations to a more contemporary lifestyle are encouraging such changes.
Architecture constantly adapts to suit the changing context so that it can best meet the common person’s needs. There is, however, a risk that new materials and construction methods imported from outside may be introduced at a speed that does not allow for the traditional way of testing novelties over time and adapting them to the local situation. Furthermore, the social, climatic, economic and technical impacts of new interventions are often not fully understood, and this may have negative effects on people’s lives. These impacts include the reaction of buildings to earthquakes and other natural disasters. RC, for example, is a material that requires a high level of engineering, but the people who use this material often know little about this. This is why, in many cases, new materials and techniques applied in an unprofessional way will threaten the safety of buildings and the people who live in them.
Aspects of Rural Architecture
Factors governing the popularity of construction methods and materials are (a) economics in relation to people’s spending capacity, (b) easy maintenance by the common person and (c) effective response to local natural conditions such as extreme cold, strong winds or high earthquake risk.
Economics This is demonstrated most clearly by the use of brick for construction, which is most economical in the plains of the Kashmir Valley, and the use of stone, which is most economical in the hills, on account of their easy availability in the respective areas. The valley has soil that is most suitable to make bricks, baked or unbaked. The mountains, on the other hand, offer very little soil but have lots of stone and rock. When people in the hills consider switching from stone to brick, these economic factors become very relevant. The cost per brick, which is Rs.1-2 in Baramulla town (in the valley), can be Rs.3-4 at a roadside village 60 km away, or even as high as Rs.5-6 in a village a mere 2 km away from the road side where it has to be transported on mule back. Where roofing is concerned, even today CGI sheets have made no inroads where timber is cheaply available and where access to the area is only by foot over long distances and steep terrain. In other areas, cheaper timber varieties with shorter life are gaining acceptability, since the CGI roofing protects such timber from the natural
elements and timber no longer gets exposed as it did when it was used for shingles or plank roofing.
Maintenance Maintenance requires materials and skills. Since these are no different from what is required in construction, the maintenance of rural structures is easy and within the reach of ordinary people. However, if materials from outside the locality were to be used, the maintenance of the structure would become expensive.
Local Natural Conditions Winter cold is the most common natural factor governing most of Kashmir. Thick walls of brick and stone with mud plaster provide excellent protection against this, as does a thick mud-timber roof. The lighter, pitched roof made of timber and CGI sheets in combination with the attic floor also ensures livable conditions inside the house in winter and summer. The steep pitch of the light roof permits little accumulation of snow and prevents any water leakages.
Architecture by Region
From the point of view of architecture, Kashmir can be divided into several regions with the following characteristics:
Burnt and unburnt brick masonry walls with CGI roofing on timber
Unbaked brick with baked brick veneerBaked brick wall Unbaked brick wall with timber element
CGI sheet roofing dots the scene Dhajji wall with baked bricks
The Valley of Kashmir - Rural The major factors that dictate the local architecture are (a) easy access to good soil for brick-making, and to water and timber, (b) snow in winter, and (c) possibility of earthquakes. As a result, walls are made mainly out of timber and bricks, baked or unbaked.
The most common wall types are load bearing: (a) baked brick (external wall) masonry with mud or cement mortar, with or without plaster, (b) unbaked brick (internal wall) with mud mortar and mud plaster, or (c) unbaked brick with baked brick veneer (external wall) masonry with mud mortar, with or without plaster, or (d) Dhajji timber framed constructions with infill of baked brick in cement mortar or unbaked brick masonry in mud mortar, both 4" thick with timber frame. Many structures which are typically single- and double-storey have Dhajji walls in the upper storey and the gables.
Roofs slope steeply in two directions. Although planks or shingles of hardwood like Deodar were formerly the main roofing materials, today CGI sheets on timber supports have become the most common type of roofing.
The Valley of Kashmir - Urban The urban areas of the Valley have architecture that is distinct from all other areas. The main factor determining this architecture is the high density of development. This calls for vertical growth, resulting into three to four-storey structures. The two most common walling systems observed are (i) Dhajji type, with timber frame and infill consisting of baked or unbaked bricks, and (ii) Taaq type, consisting of brick masonry interlaced with heavy timber bands supported on large masonry piers made of baked bricks. The timber frames in the Dhajji walls are generally well laid out with a system of diagonal bracings that provide a distinct path to the ground for the stresses caused by lateral seismic forces. In addition, the walls are lightweight and hence have less mass and less lateral seismic loads. Thus this type of wall is able to withstand ground settlement and major earthquakes without suffering much damage. The Taaq type of construction has a large number of windows (“Taaq” means window), one in each gap between the piers. The roofs are two- and four-sided
This manual does not cover the traditional Dhajji Dewari and Taaq constructions since these have heritage value and thus call for a different approach to restoration and retrofitting than half-modern/halftraditional composite rural constructions.
High-Elevation Hilly Regions Surrounding the Valley
The major factors that dictate the local architecture in this zone are (a) easy access to building-quality stone, (b) limited availability of topsoil, (c) varying availability of water, ranging from abundant to very little, (d) better availability of timber than in other zones due to lesser deforestation, (e) difficulty in carting non-local materials, (f) heavy snow in winter, and (g) possibility of earthquakes. The most common wall types are (a) coursed random rubble masonry with or without mud mortar, with or without mud plaster, and (b) Dhajji wall made of timber frame with small stones and plenty of mud mortar as infill, mainly
for the interior walls. The roof can be sloping or flat. The flat roof, as shown earlier, made with timber understructure supporting the mud and vegetal roofing is often used for summer dwellings in high altitude pastures. It is also used in animal shelters in this region on account of the warmth that it can provide. This type of roofing requires extraordinarily heavy roofing elements on account of heavy snow buildup in winter. More commonly, roofing consists of pitched CGI sheet roof on timber supports, since it encloses a large volume which provides insulation in the cold winters on account of the attic floor.
Low-Elevation Hilly Regions (Surrounding the Valley and Other Parts of the State)
The main factors that dictate the local architecture in this zone are (a) easy access to building quality stone, (b) limited availability of topsoil, (c) greatly varying availability of water, (d) varying availability of timber, (e) little snow in winter, and (g) possibility of earthquakes. The most common wall types are (a) coursed random rubble masonry with or without mud mortar, with or without mud plaster, since
availability of mud and water vary greatly. Historically, the flat roof has been the most popular on account of low snowfall. Even today, this type of roof is visible in plenty along the Jammu-Srinagar route as well as in many parts of Poonch area. However, the escalating cost of timber along with the easy availability of CGI sheeting has made the latter the most popular roof type in this region also.
Typical Kashmir House in Rural Areas
A typical rural Kashmiri house today is a large twostorey structure, with an aspect ratio generally not exceeding 1.2 to 1.3, with walls that are not plastered from outside and a shining CGI roof that is pitched, with one or more projections. In the ground storey it has approximately four rooms including a kitchen and a front verandah, with a central corridor stretching from the main entrance in front to a large bathroom cum-toilet in the rear. The stairs lead from the front end of the corridor to the upper storey. The upper storey has a similar arrangement of rooms and passage as found on the ground floor, and also has stairs that lead to the attic. The number of storeys depends on the resources at the disposal of the owner. Unlike in other parts of the country, where rooms are gradually added as and when the need arises, here the basic structure is built in one go. But the upper storeys are enclosed and finished at a later date.
The ground-storey rooms are used as a sitting area, bedrooms, and kitchen. The upper storey rooms may be used as for storage as well as bedrooms. On account of the joint-family system with several families living under one roof, there is often more than one kitchen in the house. The attic area is invariably used for storage, since the people are predominantly agriculturists. In the case of single-storey houses, the attic space is often divided with lightweight internal walls to create more utilizable spaces.
Traditionally, timber has been the most used domestic fuel in the region. Wood-burning stoves are made from mud by the lady of the house. An
ingeniously efficient water heating system used to be incorporated in the construction of the kitchen wall just to one side of the stove. The system consisted of a copper vessel embedded in the masonry wall with openings for a water inlet and outlet. A cavity is made in the wall such that the hot gases from the stove go round the tank and heat its content. While cooking is in progress the water is heated continuously. In recent years, however, with cooking gas slowly replacing wood, people have been heating water on a gas stove. Electric water heaters have begun to come in, too.
For space heating, traditionally the houses had fireplaces. But today, the simple wood-burning space heating stoves called Bukhari, made out of galvanized iron sheets, have become very popular since they do not involve additional expense in construction.
Credits:- Manual for Restoration and Retrofitting of Rural Structures in Kashmir.
Rural Architecture of Kashmir.
Rural Architecture of Kashmir.
Traditional architecture in many places continues to evolve, and Kashmiri rural architecture is no exception. A number of building systems in various parts of Kashmir have developed over time to accommodate local natural and cultural factors, including the impact of earthquakes. These systems are not only part of the cultural heritage of Kashmir but also add to its beautiful landscape. Historically, the buildings have depended completely upon stone, mud, bricks and wood for roofing as well as walling. Until very recently, non-local materials did not represent a valid option for local constructions. They were expensive, and their use added logistical complications to the construction process. However, in recent times new materials have made their way into the valleys of Kashmir on account of their favorable economics as well as people’s aspiration to modernity.
Until the 1970s the most common building systems in Kashmir were brick or stone walls. Some of them timber framed, with timber and mud roofs. But as durable wood like Deodar became very expensive, corrugated galvanized iron (CGI) sheets came to replace wood planks and shingles. In areas where it is easy to transport these sheets, the change has been so far-reaching that CGI sheeting now constitutes the most common form of roofing in the region. Even in areas where just twenty years ago houses were mainly built with flat mud roofs, CGI sheets have become the predominant roofing material. Apart from this, the reinforced concrete (RC) slab is gradually replacing the timber floor and load bearing masonry walls are replacing the timber framing. Again, changing economic forces as well as people’s aspirations to a more contemporary lifestyle are encouraging such changes.
Architecture constantly adapts to suit the changing context so that it can best meet the common person’s needs. There is, however, a risk that new materials and construction methods imported from outside may be introduced at a speed that does not allow for the traditional way of testing novelties over time and adapting them to the local situation. Furthermore, the social, climatic, economic and technical impacts of new interventions are often not fully understood, and this may have negative effects on people’s lives. These impacts include the reaction of buildings to earthquakes and other natural disasters. RC, for example, is a material that requires a high level of engineering, but the people who use this material often know little about this. This is why, in many cases, new materials and techniques applied in an unprofessional way will threaten the safety of buildings and the people who live in them.
Aspects of Rural Architecture
Factors governing the popularity of construction methods and materials are (a) economics in relation to people’s spending capacity, (b) easy maintenance by the common person and (c) effective response to local natural conditions such as extreme cold, strong winds or high earthquake risk.
Economics This is demonstrated most clearly by the use of brick for construction, which is most economical in the plains of the Kashmir Valley, and the use of stone, which is most economical in the hills, on account of their easy availability in the respective areas. The valley has soil that is most suitable to make bricks, baked or unbaked. The mountains, on the other hand, offer very little soil but have lots of stone and rock. When people in the hills consider switching from stone to brick, these economic factors become very relevant. The cost per brick, which is Rs.1-2 in Baramulla town (in the valley), can be Rs.3-4 at a roadside village 60 km away, or even as high as Rs.5-6 in a village a mere 2 km away from the road side where it has to be transported on mule back. Where roofing is concerned, even today CGI sheets have made no inroads where timber is cheaply available and where access to the area is only by foot over long distances and steep terrain. In other areas, cheaper timber varieties with shorter life are gaining acceptability, since the CGI roofing protects such timber from the natural
elements and timber no longer gets exposed as it did when it was used for shingles or plank roofing.
Maintenance Maintenance requires materials and skills. Since these are no different from what is required in construction, the maintenance of rural structures is easy and within the reach of ordinary people. However, if materials from outside the locality were to be used, the maintenance of the structure would become expensive.
Local Natural Conditions Winter cold is the most common natural factor governing most of Kashmir. Thick walls of brick and stone with mud plaster provide excellent protection against this, as does a thick mud-timber roof. The lighter, pitched roof made of timber and CGI sheets in combination with the attic floor also ensures livable conditions inside the house in winter and summer. The steep pitch of the light roof permits little accumulation of snow and prevents any water leakages.
Architecture by Region
From the point of view of architecture, Kashmir can be divided into several regions with the following characteristics:
Burnt and unburnt brick masonry walls with CGI roofing on timber
Unbaked brick with baked brick veneerBaked brick wall Unbaked brick wall with timber element
CGI sheet roofing dots the scene Dhajji wall with baked bricks
The Valley of Kashmir - Rural The major factors that dictate the local architecture are (a) easy access to good soil for brick-making, and to water and timber, (b) snow in winter, and (c) possibility of earthquakes. As a result, walls are made mainly out of timber and bricks, baked or unbaked.
The most common wall types are load bearing: (a) baked brick (external wall) masonry with mud or cement mortar, with or without plaster, (b) unbaked brick (internal wall) with mud mortar and mud plaster, or (c) unbaked brick with baked brick veneer (external wall) masonry with mud mortar, with or without plaster, or (d) Dhajji timber framed constructions with infill of baked brick in cement mortar or unbaked brick masonry in mud mortar, both 4" thick with timber frame. Many structures which are typically single- and double-storey have Dhajji walls in the upper storey and the gables.
Roofs slope steeply in two directions. Although planks or shingles of hardwood like Deodar were formerly the main roofing materials, today CGI sheets on timber supports have become the most common type of roofing.
The Valley of Kashmir - Urban The urban areas of the Valley have architecture that is distinct from all other areas. The main factor determining this architecture is the high density of development. This calls for vertical growth, resulting into three to four-storey structures. The two most common walling systems observed are (i) Dhajji type, with timber frame and infill consisting of baked or unbaked bricks, and (ii) Taaq type, consisting of brick masonry interlaced with heavy timber bands supported on large masonry piers made of baked bricks. The timber frames in the Dhajji walls are generally well laid out with a system of diagonal bracings that provide a distinct path to the ground for the stresses caused by lateral seismic forces. In addition, the walls are lightweight and hence have less mass and less lateral seismic loads. Thus this type of wall is able to withstand ground settlement and major earthquakes without suffering much damage. The Taaq type of construction has a large number of windows (“Taaq” means window), one in each gap between the piers. The roofs are two- and four-sided
This manual does not cover the traditional Dhajji Dewari and Taaq constructions since these have heritage value and thus call for a different approach to restoration and retrofitting than half-modern/halftraditional composite rural constructions.
High-Elevation Hilly Regions Surrounding the Valley
The major factors that dictate the local architecture in this zone are (a) easy access to building-quality stone, (b) limited availability of topsoil, (c) varying availability of water, ranging from abundant to very little, (d) better availability of timber than in other zones due to lesser deforestation, (e) difficulty in carting non-local materials, (f) heavy snow in winter, and (g) possibility of earthquakes. The most common wall types are (a) coursed random rubble masonry with or without mud mortar, with or without mud plaster, and (b) Dhajji wall made of timber frame with small stones and plenty of mud mortar as infill, mainly
for the interior walls. The roof can be sloping or flat. The flat roof, as shown earlier, made with timber understructure supporting the mud and vegetal roofing is often used for summer dwellings in high altitude pastures. It is also used in animal shelters in this region on account of the warmth that it can provide. This type of roofing requires extraordinarily heavy roofing elements on account of heavy snow buildup in winter. More commonly, roofing consists of pitched CGI sheet roof on timber supports, since it encloses a large volume which provides insulation in the cold winters on account of the attic floor.
Low-Elevation Hilly Regions (Surrounding the Valley and Other Parts of the State)
The main factors that dictate the local architecture in this zone are (a) easy access to building quality stone, (b) limited availability of topsoil, (c) greatly varying availability of water, (d) varying availability of timber, (e) little snow in winter, and (g) possibility of earthquakes. The most common wall types are (a) coursed random rubble masonry with or without mud mortar, with or without mud plaster, since
availability of mud and water vary greatly. Historically, the flat roof has been the most popular on account of low snowfall. Even today, this type of roof is visible in plenty along the Jammu-Srinagar route as well as in many parts of Poonch area. However, the escalating cost of timber along with the easy availability of CGI sheeting has made the latter the most popular roof type in this region also.
Typical Kashmir House in Rural Areas
A typical rural Kashmiri house today is a large twostorey structure, with an aspect ratio generally not exceeding 1.2 to 1.3, with walls that are not plastered from outside and a shining CGI roof that is pitched, with one or more projections. In the ground storey it has approximately four rooms including a kitchen and a front verandah, with a central corridor stretching from the main entrance in front to a large bathroom cum-toilet in the rear. The stairs lead from the front end of the corridor to the upper storey. The upper storey has a similar arrangement of rooms and passage as found on the ground floor, and also has stairs that lead to the attic. The number of storeys depends on the resources at the disposal of the owner. Unlike in other parts of the country, where rooms are gradually added as and when the need arises, here the basic structure is built in one go. But the upper storeys are enclosed and finished at a later date.
The ground-storey rooms are used as a sitting area, bedrooms, and kitchen. The upper storey rooms may be used as for storage as well as bedrooms. On account of the joint-family system with several families living under one roof, there is often more than one kitchen in the house. The attic area is invariably used for storage, since the people are predominantly agriculturists. In the case of single-storey houses, the attic space is often divided with lightweight internal walls to create more utilizable spaces.
Traditionally, timber has been the most used domestic fuel in the region. Wood-burning stoves are made from mud by the lady of the house. An
ingeniously efficient water heating system used to be incorporated in the construction of the kitchen wall just to one side of the stove. The system consisted of a copper vessel embedded in the masonry wall with openings for a water inlet and outlet. A cavity is made in the wall such that the hot gases from the stove go round the tank and heat its content. While cooking is in progress the water is heated continuously. In recent years, however, with cooking gas slowly replacing wood, people have been heating water on a gas stove. Electric water heaters have begun to come in, too.
For space heating, traditionally the houses had fireplaces. But today, the simple wood-burning space heating stoves called Bukhari, made out of galvanized iron sheets, have become very popular since they do not involve additional expense in construction.
Credits:- Manual for Restoration and Retrofitting of Rural Structures in Kashmir.
Rural Architecture of Kashmir.
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